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A városok sajátos éghajlata, a városklíma, a természetes környezethez képest módosult éghajlattal jellemezhető. A klímaparaméterek városi módosulásának hátterében a beépített felszínek megváltozott energiaháztartása áll. Míg a városok éghajlata markánsan elkülönül a környező természetes területek éghajlatától, a városokon belül is jelentős klimatikus különbségek alakulnak ki. Ezen különbségek kialakulására alapvető hatással van a beépítettség foka, valamint a zöld területek részaránya. A városokon belüli éghajlati különbségek tanulmányozása mérések és numerikus szimulációk révén lehetséges. Utóbbiak segítségével széleskörűen tanulmányozható a beépítettség, a városokra jellemző mesterséges anyagok, valamint a városon belül alkalmazott zöld- és kék infrastruktúra elemeinek hatása a kialakuló mikro- és lokális éghajlatra, illetve mindezek hatása a lakosok komfortérzetére. Eme ismeretanyagra alapozva megfogalmazhatók olyan várostervezési irányelvek, melyekkel az éghajlatváltozással kombinálódó városklíma negatív hatásai mérsékelhetőek, s a városlakók számára klimatikus szempontból élhetőbb környezet teremthető.Tanulmányomban Budapest jellemző városi beépítési formáit, s a köztük lévő mikroklimatikus különbségeket vizsgálom numerikus szimulációk útján, különös tekintettel a nyári hőterhelés mérséklésére irányuló várostervezési beavatkozások eredményességére az egyes beépítési formák esetén. Az egyik ilyen beavatkozás az épülethomlokzatok albedójának növelése nagyobb sugárzás-visszaverő képességű anyagok, illetve festékek alkalmazása révén. Egy másik jellemző beavatkozás a zöldterületek részarányának növelése, melyet tanulmányomban a lombkorona borítás értékének változtatásával vizsgálok. A különféle beépítési formák, homlokzat albedók és korona borítottság értékek komplex hatásának feltárására az ENVI-met szimulációs software-t alkalmaztam. Az eredmények alapján elmondható, hogy a megnövekedett albedó következtében a napsugárzásnak kitett homlokzatok hőmérséklete – s ez által az épületek hőterhelése is – csökken. A visszavert sugárzási hányad megnövekedése azonban az épületek között sugárzás többletként jelenik meg, mely többlet a nem módosított albedójú felületek (utak, terek) nagyobb sugárzási terheléséhez és ezáltal a városi határréteg felmelegedéséhez vezet. Ezzel ellentétben, a korona borítottság növelése a városi határrétegben a rövidhullámú sugárzás és a léghőmérséklet csökkenését eredményezi. Mivel ezen tényezők hatása a lakosok komfortérzetét és az épületeket érő hőterhelést is előnyösen befolyásolja, a közterületek fásítása a nyári hőterhelés mérséklésére irányuló várostervezési beavatkozás egyik hatásos eszköze lehet.

As a result of the changing climate with trends of rising temperatures and increasing extreme heat events, urban planners and city officials have recently taken a great interest in improving the climate of cities and maintaining comfortable outdoor conditions in spite of these trends.In order to meet the demand for this special knowledge and to deliver scientific assistance, several numerical models have emerged with an aim to assess the microclimate of cities and their influence on human thermal comfort over the course of the past decade. While these tools differ both in the human thermal comfort indices they deliver and in their numerical modeling approach, they all rely on the calculation of mean radiant temperature—the driving parameter of outdoor human thermal comfort. While the assessment of models lags behind the perpetual software updates and releases, the documentation of many such models is also lacking or insufficient. In addition, a great deal of existing validation studies assess clear cut situations where the site is either sunlit or in shade, whereas conditions in the urban environment are generally more complex. Given both the growing importance the outdoor thermal environment of cities and the role played by these tools, reporting on their performance is of high importance.The aim of this study is to assess the ability of several recently emerged or updated microclimate models to reproduce mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) in a complex urban setting. The evaluation is made against field data obtained by integral radiation measurements. Results indicate that most microclimate models underestimate Tmrt both at sunlit locations and at night, whereas in shade Tmrt is generally overestimated. These errors are related to the surface temperature parametrization, the isotropic sky assumption, simplifications in the reflected shortwave radiation calculation and the incorrect representation of a standing person.

Cities are increasingly under pressure to address the challenges of climate change. One of the most pressing and unifying issue in this respect is the maintenance of comfortable outdoor conditions despite rising air temperatures and increasing extreme heat events. As a means to inform urban planner and city officials, the assessment of outdoor thermal comfort conditions—either via numerical modeling or field measurements—have gained popularity over the past decade. While measurements can deliver highly accurate data, they are expensive and time-consuming endeavors that can only inform us about the conditions in an existing environment on a specific day and time of the year. In contrast, numerical modeling allows us to evaluate alternative urban design scenarios as well as to grasp the spatial and temporal variability of outdoor human thermal comfort conditions.

Given the advantages of numerical modeling and the increasing computational power of personal computers, several tools have emerged with an aim to assess the microclimate and human thermal comfort impacts of urban planning and design decisions. While these tools differ both in the human thermal comfort indices they deliver and in their numerical modeling approach, they all rely on the calculation of mean radiant temperature, in one way or another. Mean radiant temperature (T_mrt), the driving parameter of human thermal comfort in outdoor spaces, requires the modeling of both short- and long waver radiation fluxes. While different calculation methods exist to deriving this parameter, most models also introduce some kind of numerical simplification to increase computational speed. The multitude of numerical approaches in deriving T_mrt, coupled with the high spatial and temporal variability of this parameter, can result in a range of values delivered by these tools. Given both the growing importance of improving the outdoor thermal environment of cities and the role these tools play in it, reporting on their performance is of high importance.

The aim of this study is to assess popular microclimate models in their ability to reproduce the complex radiative environment of cities, as indicated by Tmrt, and to inform to the research and design community about their performance, compared to integral radiation measurement derived filed data. While the documentation of some numerical simulation tools is lacking or incomplete, this paper will nevertheless attempt to shed lights on the reasons behind the disparities in the derived T_mrt values. Initial results indicate that most microclimate models have a tendency to underestimate nighttime T_mrt together with daytime values when the location is exposed to the sun. In contrast, when the locations become shaded, T_mrt values are generally overestimated. In general, these errors indicate issues with surface temperature parametrization and point to the greatest challenge of the numerical simulation community.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the urban block configuration of free-standing buildings has been deemed superior to other built forms, as it provided the necessities of modern healthy living: sunlight and fresh air. In light of climate change, the dissertation aims to reevaluate these long held beliefs and to reintroduce microclimate as an urban design consideration. The study takes four metropolitan block typologies of Budapest as cases to clarify the microclimate influence of key urban design parameters by means of a numerical simulation study. The effects of built form, orientation, vegetation and facade properties are evaluated for a typical summer day. The cases are assessed on the basis of diurnal potential air and mean radiant temperatures within the urban canopy layer. Numerical modeling is performed by ENVI-met and analysis is conducted with MATLAB. The findings indicate that built form and vegetation are key factors governing the microclimate. During the day, intraurban cool island develops between dense configurations and in tree-shaded urban canopies. Orientation is decisive in configurations with large open spaces, where east-west alignment corresponds with peak radiant and air temperatures. Apart from albedo, facade properties have little effect on the microclimate. The rise of air temperature with facade albedo is the outcome of canopy floor heating, resulting from the increased ratio of reflected shortwave radiation. A short-term field experiment was conducted in Budapest to complement the numerical simulation study and to evaluate ENVI-met. The measurement campaign utilized six air temperature and humidity loggers. Additionally, wind speed, air temperature and humidity were recorded at the pedestrian level during an anticyclonic period. In courtyards, thermal stratification developed by day with cool island intensities up to 7 C. In the case of open configurations, neither cool island, nor stratification was observed. The comparison of measured and predicted air temperatures revealed the strengths and weaknesses of the numerical model. In general, predicted temperatures had a decreased diurnal range with maximum values systematically underestimated. ENVI-met also failed to reproduce the thermal stratification in courtyards. Despite these shortcomings, the predicted trends and the relative microclimate differences between the configurations agreed with observations reasonably well.

As a result of climate change, many regions are projected to see increases in air temperatures and extreme heat events over the coming decades. Since these trends are expected to exacerbate existing conditions in cites, urban heat mitigation will be one of the key challenges of the twenty-first century. A frequently advocated means of mitigating urban heat is through shade trees. Through the reduction of air and radiative temperatures trees not only improve outdoor human thermal comfort, but also reduce the cooling loads of buildings. This paper investigates the impact of different canopy cover ratios and tree layouts on the urban microclimate. The numerical simulation study utilizes four characteristic dense urban configurations from Budapest (Hungary) to assess the influences of these factors on the effectiveness of shade trees in mitigating urban heat. The study applies ENVI-met for microclimate simulation and MATLAB for the analysis and visualization of the results. Microclimate conditions within the urban canopy layer are examined on the basis of diurnal air and mean radiant temperatures. Preliminary results indicate that the effectiveness of shade trees is the function of the urban configurations' initial thermal performance. Since microclimate improvements by way of trees are primarily achieved through shading, greatest reduction in radiative temperatures is achieved in configurations with large open spaces. In the case of air temperature, increasing the canopy cover increases the added benefit of temperature reduction—indicating that reduced turbulence can in certain cases be beneficial.

Cities modify the background climate through the surface-atmosphere interaction. This modification is function of urban design features, such as the configuration of buildings and the amount of vegetation. Compared to the undisturbed climate of the region, the climate of cities is characterized by higher temperature and lower wind speed. This modification is especially pronounce in dense urban areas. The climate modification of cities is not static, but varies in space and time. The spatial variations are governed by land use and built form differences, as well as by the presence or absence of green and blue infrastructures. Due to the spatial complexity of cities and the general lack of urban weather station networks in most places, the amount of available urban weather data is limited. As a consequence, planners, engineers and public health professionals can only approximate the climate impact of built environments in their respective fields.

Over the past years, several numerical simulation models have emerged that are able to model the influence of built areas on the atmosphere at the local scale and thus, deliver urban weather data for an area of interest. The aim of this study is to assess the performance of three numerical models with an ability to predict site-specific urban air temperature. The evaluated models are the Urban Weather Generator (UWG), the Vertical City Weather Generator (VCWG) and the Surface Urban Energy and Water Balance Scheme (SUEWS). Although the models differ in their scopes, modeling approaches and applications, they all derive the urban weather data from rural observations considering the land use and built form characteristics of the site.

The models are evaluated against air temperature measurements from the dense, 13th District of Budapest (Hungary). The field measurement utilized simple air temperature and relative humidity loggers placed in non-aspirated solar radiation screens at four shaded sites. The two week measurement period encompassed a five-day-long anticyclonic period with clear sky and low wind speed. Preliminary results indicate a good general agreement between modeled and observed values with root mean square error below or at 2ºC and index of agreement between 0.92-0.96. During the anticyclonic period most models slightly overestimate the daily maximum and underestimated the daily minimum urban air temperature.

Climate change projections for Central Europe indicate a significant rise in summertime temperatures and an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme heat events. Combined with the peculiar climate of cities—characterized by the Urban Heat Island effect and reduced ventilation due to high building density—climate change is expected to have more pronounced effects in urban environments. Shade trees are demonstrated to be one of the most effective means to mitigate heat stress in cities. However, very few studies have evaluated systematically the impact of different landscape design and tree parameters (e.g. the species selection or the spatial distribution) on the heat mitigation effectiveness of shade trees. This study aims to assess the role of vegetation transmissivity, canopy size and tree distribution in a medium-sized Central-European square. The rectangular Bartók Square, located in the inner city of Szeged (Hungary), was selected as a study area. The numerical simulations were carried out with the radiation model SOLWEIG (v.2015a). The necessary meteorological data, collected on clear and warm summer day, was obtained from a nearby weather station run by the Hungarian Weather Service. The default model was built on the basis of available GIS data and utilized tree related parameters from detailed field measurements (tree location, canopy size and shape, etc.). Crown transmissivity data originated from a preliminary, long-term radiation measurement survey covering the vegetation period. Alternative scenarios were constructed with the following characteristics:1) keeping the original tree layout of the square, the initial tree crown transmissivity of 0.0678 was changed to small (0.0243) and high (0.1328) values;2) keeping the original canopy volume, two additional scenarios were introduced with evenly distributed trees of different crown sizes: that of several small trees and of fewer large ones;3) keeping the original canopy volume and using the same number and size of trees, we assessed the role of tree distribution by introducing a scenario were the trees were arranged along the bounding facades of the square—this scenario was compared to the evenly distributed configuration. In order to evaluate the impact of vegetation, all scenarios are reported in reference to a theoretical, nonvegetated square. Since several studies revealed that mean radiant temperature (Tmrt) plays a key role in summertime heat stress in the European context, this parameter was selected as performance indicator. Tmrt combines the heat effect of all short-and long-wave radiation fluxes reaching the human body. Our results indicate that when shade is provided for the facades only, the nighttime Tmrt surplus nearly disappears. However, while horizontal long-wave radiation fluxes have a greater impact on human thermal comfort due to the different absorption coefficients of the human body (0.7 vs. 0.95 for short and long-wave radiation, respectively), providing shade for the facades only is not a successful daytime heat mitigation strategy in open urban places. Comparing the influence of vegetation transmissivity revealed that low transmissivity species were able to reduce Tmrt by only 2C on average during the day. According to our case study, when transmissivity and canopy volume is kept constant, considerable mean radiant temperature reduction can be achieved by evenly distributed mature trees.

The parameter governing outdoor human thermal comfort (HTC) on warm, clear-sky days is radiation. Its effect on HTC is accounted for by mean radiant temperature (T_mrt). While T_mrt differences owing to different measurement methods are well established, the impact of different computational approaches have not been systematically evaluated. This study assesses the performance of three microclimate models in their ability to estimate T_mrt values in complex urban environments. The evaluated models are RayMan Pro, SOLWEIG and ENVI-met. The model evaluation encompasses both the comparison of modeled T_mrt values with those derived from observations and model intercomparisons with analyses extending to several radiation terms and parameters that comprise or explain the resultant T_mrt. Results indicate that the models systematically underestimate nighttime T_mrt. SOLWEIG and ENVI-met tend to overestimate T_mrt during prolonged periods of shade and underestimate when the sites are sunlit. RayMan underestimates T_mrt values during most part of the day. The largest T_mrt errors occur at low sun elevations in all three models, mainly as a result of underestimated longwave emitted and shortwave reflected radiation fluxes by the adjacent facades. These errors indicate room for improvement with regards to surface temperature estimation and shortwave reflected radiation calculations in the models.

As a result of both urbanization and climate change, the thermal environment of cities is deteriorating steadily. Thus, urban planner and city officials are increasingly under the pressure maintain livable environments in cities. The quickest and most economic means to assessing the performance of various urban heat mitigation strategies is via numerical modeling. Owing to these advantages, the approach gained popularity over the past decade, as well as resulted in the proliferation of microclimate models. The driving parameter of outdoor human thermal comfort is radiation, which is accounted for via mean radiant temperature (Tmrt). While this parameter is at the center of most outdoor thermal comfort indices, it is also rather challenging to measure and calculate. Along with the recent emergence of microclimate models, the ways of calculating outdoor Tmrt also multiplied. However, beyond individual model validations, very few studies have attempted to compare the performance of different models. Thus, the aim of this paper is to assess the performance of three microclimate models in estimating Tmrt in the urban environment. The reviewed models are VTUF-3D, the Grasshopper add-ons of Rhinoceros 3D and the latest ENVI-met version utilizing the Indexed View Sphere (IVS) algorithm. The adopted spatial resolution in each model were not identical. In the case of ENVI-met and VTUF-3D, 3 and 5 meter resolutions were used, respectively. The Grasshopper add-on was set to calculate surface temperatures at 6 m resolution and view factors (along with Tmrt) for a denser, 3-meter spatial grid. The model assessment utilized data from a 26-hours-long integral radiation measurement, conducted in Szeged (Hungary). The observations were undertaken along the four bounding facades of Bartók Square during a clear summer day in 2016. According to the preliminary results, ENVI-met performs the best when the observation sites are exposed to direct solar radiation. However, it underestimates Tmrt values by up to 10 ºC when the sites are in shade and during night. In general, both VTUF-3D and the Grasshopper add-on underestimate Tmrt values considerably during sunlit conditions (exceeding 20 ºC at times), but reproduce radiative conditions well at night (with errors remaining below 4 ºC). One reason for the above errors is the way Tmrt is calculate by these models. While Tmrt calculations differ in each model, at the core of their adopted approaches is a Tmrt estimation developed for indoor environments---which was later adopted to outdoors. One of the lingering simplification is the assumption of a seated posture and/or the conceptualization of the human body as a sphere. The other transferred simplification is the assumption of small temperature differences between the surrounding surfaces. These assumptions not only diminish the impact of horizontal fluxes, but also depict a less diverse radiative environment.

Shading is shown to be one of the most effective strategies to mitigate urban heat stress, especially on a small scale. This paper presents an empirical study investigating the effectiveness of different means of shading—by sun sails and trees—to improve the local thermal environment during the summer. Three different urban settings were investigated through detailed human-biometeorological measurements in the Hungarian city of Pécs. Our study employed the accurate six-directional radiation measurement technique, and calculated Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) from the obtained data to assess outdoor thermal conditions. Our results indicate that in open urban squares trees can mitigate heat stress more effectively than low-hanging sun sails, installed right above the head of pedestrians. In the period of 9:00–16:00, the average PET reduction by trees and low sun sails was 9.0 °C and 5.8 °C, respectively. Sun sails, installed at higher elevation to shade an entire street canyon, and mature trees with dense canopy had more pronounced heat stress reduction ability, and were able to reduce the local PET by over 10 °C. Our study demonstrates the importance of detailed small-scale field measurements, the outcomes of which can be incorporated into climate-responsive urban design strategies with ease.

Európa lakosságának mintegy kétharmada már most is városi környezetben él, s a városi populáció aránya 2050-re várhatóan 80% fölé fog emelkedni. Mivel a városokra jellemző többlet hőmennyiség, valamint a városok csökkent átszellőzési képessége tovább súlyosbítják a klímaváltozással járó hőmérsékletemelkedést, a – várhatóan egyre gyakoribbá, hosszabbá és intenzívebbé váló – hőhullámok hatásai különösen a városlakók egészségét veszélyeztetik. Ennél fogva a nyári hőség káros következményeinek megelőzése a várostervezés egyik kiemelt feladata. A természet- alapú megoldások (Nature-Based Solutions, NBS) egy újonnan bevezetett fogalom a környezetkutatás és környezet- gazdálkodás területén, mely a klímaváltozással járó kihívások kezelésére természetes tényezőket, illetve folyamatokat ajánl. Ebben a tanulmányban – a négyéves Nature4Cities projekt keretein belül – a fás vegetáció hőstressz-mérséklő kapacitását vettük górcső alá egyrészt terepi mérések, másrészt numerikus szimulációk segítségével.A léghőmérséklet korántsem az egyedüli paraméter az emberi szervezet hőháztartása szempontjából. Sőt, számos humán-biometeorológiai tanulmány rámutatott már a sugárzási viszonyok vezető szerepére a nyári hőterhelés kialakulásában. Éppen ezért tanulmányunkban a biometeorológiai vizsgálatok kulcsparaméterére, az átlagos sugárzási hőmérsékletre (Mean Radiant Temperature, Tmrt), illetve ennek a fás vegetáció általi mérséklésére helyeztük a hangsúlyt.Tanulmányunk első részében három, a város-biometeorológia területén gyakran alkalmazott mikroklíma modellt (RayMan, ENVI-met, SOLWEIG) hasonlítottunk össze a tekintetben, hogy mennyire képesek a Tmrt valós értékeinek szimulálására. A modellellenőrzéshez egy derült égboltviszonyokkal jellemezhető késő nyári nap humán- biometeorológiai méréssorozatának adatait használtuk fel. A 26-órás mérés során a szegedi Bartók Béla tér öt különböző pontján rögzítettük a rövid-, és hosszúhullámú sugárzási mérleg komponenseket, hogy azokból a leghitelesebb biometeorológiai eljárás szerint Tmrt-t számoljunk. A három mikroklíma-modell közül a SOLWEIG szolgáltatta a leghitelesebb eredményeket, így később ezt a modellt használtuk arra, hogy összehasonlítsuk különféle fásítási szcenáriók hőstressz-mérséklő hatását – ugyancsak a szegedi Bartók Béla téri mintaterületen. A szimulációk alapján a lombkorona transzmisszivitásának (sugárzásáteresztő képességének) változtatása kisebb, míg azonos korona-térfogat mellett a lombkorona méretének (több kis fa vs. kevesebb nagyobb fa), valamint a fák területen belüli elrendezésének változtatása (egyenletesen vs. csak az épülethomlokzatok mentén ültetett fák) jelentősebb Tmrt módosítást eredményezett.

Mitigating the impact of summertime heat stress became the central issue of climate-conscious urban planning as a result of rising temperatures and continued urbanization trends. Furthermore, recent EU planning directives gave priority to nature-based solutions (NBS) and hence to re-naturing cities. Within the scope of the international Nature4Cities project fostering the use such solution, an inter- and cross-disciplinary research will be done assessing the performance of archetypal NBSs addressing different urban challenges – in this case, heat mitigation in urban environments.The objective of this particular study is to compare the effectiveness of natural and artificial shading solutions (urban trees and sun sails) in reducing summertime heat stress and enhancing outdoor thermal comfort of pedestrians. The Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET), used as performance indicator in this study, was calculated from field data. The measurement campaign utilizing two human-biometeorological stations recorded pedestrian-level radiant flux densities from six perpendicular directions, air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed on three late-summer days. The daytime measurements were conducted at three different urban settings in Pécs, a medium-size Central-European city.Our research found that mature trees with dense canopy have the highest heat stress reduction potential and could reduce the local PET by up to 10°C. Even though artificial sun sails blocked effectively direct solar exposure, the low-hanging sun sails became the sources of long-wave radiation which made the thermal comfort conditions below them somewhat worse compared to trees. Our study demonstrates the importance of small-scale field measurements, the outcomes of which are directly applicable in the climate-adaptive design of urban spaces.

Around three quarter of the European population already lives in urban areas and by 2050 this proportion isexpected to rise over 80%. Since climate change is expected to bring rising temperatures and more frequent heatwaves, mitigating the impact of extreme heat events is one of the most important issues in urban planning. Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) is a recently introduced concept in environmental research and management that promotesnature as a means to address the challenges brought about climate change. Researches of human-biometeorologydemonstrated that radiation heat load, quantified as mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), is the main source ofdaytime heat stress in summer. In European cities—especially in those with dense historic urban cores—carefullyplanned and properly maintained shade trees constitute the most effective NBS for mitigating extreme thermalconditions, while also offering several co-benefits.This study was conducted with the following two aims: (a) to assess the impact of woody vegetation anddifferent façade orientation on the radiation heat load in a complex urban setting; and (b) to evaluate the performanceof SOLWEIG, a radiation model, in reproducing the measured short- and long-wave radiation flux densities.The observation was conducted over a 26-hour long period at the rectangular Bartók Square in Szeged (Hungary)on a clear and warm late-summer day. The investigation utilized two tailor-made human-biometeorologicalstations equipped with rotatable net radiometers. The model–measurement comparison is based on data collectedfrom five locations within the square: from the center and from four sites next to the bordering façades.The measurements confirmed that on clear summer days Tmrt can reach extreme level at exposed locations(65–75C). However, shade trees are able to reduce daytime Tmrt to 30–35C. Shading SE-, S- and SW-facingfaçades and adjacent sidewalks is extremely important for the reduction of pedestrian heat stress and thus, therisk of heat stroke. When a measurement point adjacent to a facade became exposed to direct solar radiation,the radiation load increased significantly due to the additional lateral components—the reflected short-wave andthe emitted long-wave fluxes—emanating from the wall. In this respect, SOLWEIG was unable to reproducethe prolonged heat emitting effect of walls following solar exposure. Additionally, the measurement–modelcomparison revealed minor inconsistencies that originated from the model’s treatment of tree crowns: representingthem as perfectly shaped and homogeneous bodies. Due to this simplification, the observed brief penetrations ofdirect sunbeams through the canopy at most locations were not reproduced.

Increasing summertime air temperature deteriorates human health especially in cities where the warming tendency is exacerbated by urban heat island. Human-biometeorological studies shed light on the primary role of radiation conditions in the development of summertime heat stress. However, only a limited number of field investigations have been conducted up to now. Based on a 26-hour long complex radiation measurement this study presents the evolved differences within a medium-sized rectangular square in Szeged, Hungary. Besides assessing the impact of woody vegetation and façade orientation on the radiation heat load, different modeling software (ENVI-met, SOLWEIG, RayMan) are evaluated in reproducing mean radiant temperature (Tmrt).Although daytime Tmrt can reach extreme level at exposed locations (65–75°C) mature shade trees can reduce it to 30–35°C. Nevertheless, shading from buildings adjacent to sidewalks plays also an important role in mitigating pedestrian heat stress. Sidewalks facing to SE, S and SW do not benefit from the shading effect of buildings therefore shading them by trees or artificial shading devices is of high importance. The measurement–model comparison revealed smaller or larger discrepancies that raise awareness on the careful adaptation of any modeling software and on the relevance of fine-resolution field measurements.

This paper presents an urban climatological application of the urban monitoring systems – recently implemented in Szeged, Hungary and Novi Sad, Serbia – using the first set of data collected during the summer of 2014. In order to ensure a representative number and placement of stations, the selection of measurement sites was based on Local Climate Zone (LCZ) maps developed for both cities. Present paper concentrates only on the intra-urban temperature pattern characteristics expressed by the thermal reactions of the different LCZ classes in both cities. The daily temperature indices (e.g., summer days) have the highest values in the densely built up LCZs. The diurnal cycle of surplus temperatures by LCZ classes under anticyclonic weather conditions were found to be similar in the two cities with higher absolute values in the case of Novi Sad. During summer, the diurnal variation of conventional heat island intensity confirms the general knowledge that it remains positive with highest values at night, while negative values occur predominantly during the day.

Urbanization increased population density in cities and consequently leads to severe indoor air pollution. As a result of these trends, the issue of sustainable and healthy indoor environment has received increasing attention. Various air filtration techniques have been adopted to optimize indoor air quality. Air filtration technique can remove air pollutants and effectively alleviate the deterioration of indoor air quality. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the synergistic effect of different air purification technologies, air filtration theory, materials and standards. It evaluated different air filtration technologies by considering factors such as air quality improvement, filtering performance, energy and economic behaviour, thermal comfort and acoustic impact. Current research development of air filtration technologies along with their advantages, limitations and challenges are discussed. This paper aims to drive the future of air filtration technology research and development in achieving sustainable and healthy building ventilation.

In building performance simulation, occupant behavior contributes to large uncertainties, which often lead to considerable discrepancies between actual energy consumption and simulation results. This paper aims to extract occupant-behavior related electricity load patterns using classical K-means clustering approach at the initial investigation stage. Smart-metering data from a case study in Shanghai, China, was used for the load pattern analysis. The electricity load patterns of occupants were examined on a daily/weekly/seasonal basis. According to their load patterns, occupants were categorized as (a) white-collar workers, (b) poor or older families and (c) rich or young families. The daily patterns indicated that electricity use was much more random and fluctuated over a wide range. Most households of the monitored communities consumed relatively-low electricity; the characteristic double peak with higher level of consumption in the morning and evening were only apparent in a relatively small subset of residents (mostly white-collar workers). The weekly analysis found that significant load shifting towards weekend days occurred in the poor or old family group. The electricity saving potential was greatest in the white-collar workers and the rich or young family groups. This study concludes with recommendations to stakeholders utilizing our load profiling results. The research provides a rare insight into the electricity-use-related occupant behaviors of Shanghai residents through the case study of two communities. The findings of the study are also presented in a meaningful way so that they can directly aid the decision-making of governments and other stakeholders interested in energy efficiency. The research results are also relevant to the building energy simulation community as they are derived from observations, and thus can have the potential to improve the efficiency and accuracy of numerical simulation results.

In the light of sustained urbanization and rising temperature trends, mitigating the impact of extreme heat events is a pressing urban planning issue. Radiation heat load, quantified as mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), has been identified as the main source of summer heat stress. Several studies ascertained that Tmrt is the key factor driving human thermal comfort in outdoor urban places. Shading that reduces radiation heat load (Tmrt) is the most effective means to mitigate heat stress in outdoor public places, which offer a venue for leisure, recreation and for the social life of residents. Nonetheless, the small-scale thermal conditions of urban places are not only governed by shade trees and greenery, but also by buildings and paved surfaces. The aim of this study is twofold. First, it assesses the impact of differently oriented street facades with varying solar exposure on the human radiation balance at a medium-sized square in a mid-latitude city. Second, it evaluates the performance of popular, freely available microclimate and radiation models in deriving Tmrt values. The well-vegetated, rectangular Bartók square was selected in Szeged, Hungary to calculate various radiation parameters using three numerical simulation models (ENVI-met, SOLWEIG and RayMan). The derived parameters (radiation flux densities from different directions, as well as Tmrt) are compared with corresponding values obtained from detailed on-site measurements. The field data are collected as part of a 24-hour long radiation measurement utilizing the six-directional method, where a set of pyranometers and pyrgeometers are used to record short- and long-wave flux densities from six perpendicular directions (from above, from below as well as from the four cardinal points). The model-measurement comparison is based on hourly data from five locations within the square: from the center and from near the four bordering street facades of the rectangular square. Our initial results indicate that besides direct solar radiation, the temperatures of artificial surfaces (e.i. of building walls and pavements) strongly influences the human radiation balance: the increased temperature of surrounding surfaces increases the amount of emitted long-wave radiation and thus, reduces the amount a person is able to dissipate. Investigations like ours are necessary both for the advancement of our filed in general, and for the development of numerical models in particular. Models are simplifications of reality and thus they introduce a certain degree of idealization: trees are never as perfectly shaped or have a homogeneous crown transmissivity and leaf area index (LAI) in the reality, neither do surface parameters are as uniform as frequently assumed by models. All these differences influence model results to a certain degree. Therefore, the ideal outdoor thermal conditions that practitioners often plan for from behind their desks are likely to be worse in reality. Identifying the strengths and weaknesses of different models and revealing how they compare to reality is essential for both scientists and urban planners, since they all need to understand and acknowledge the limitations of the numerical approach.

The emergence of renewable-energy-source (RES) envelope solutions, building retrofit requirements and advanced energy technologies brought about challenges to the existing paradigm of urban energy systems. It is envisioned that the building cluster approach—that can maximize the synergies of RES harvesting, building performance, and distributed energy management—will deliver the breakthrough to these challenges. Thus, this paper aims to critically review urban energy systems at the cluster level that incorporate building integrated RES solutions. We begin with defining cluster approach and the associated boundaries. Several factors influencing energy planning at cluster scale are identified, while the most important ones are discussed in detail. The closely reviewed factors include RES envelope solutions, solar energy potential, density of buildings, energy demand, integrated cluster-scale energy systems and energy hub. The examined categories of RES envelope solutions are (i) the solar power, (ii) the solar thermal and (iii) the energy-efficient ones, out of which solar energy is the most prevalent RES. As a result, methods assessing the solar energy potentials of building envelopes are reviewed in detail. Building density and the associated energy use are also identified as key factors since they affect the type and the energy harvesting potentials of RES envelopes. Modelling techniques for building energy demand at cluster level and their coupling with complex integrated energy systems or an energy hub are reviewed in a comprehensive way. In addition, the paper discusses control and operational methods as well as related optimization algorithms for the energy hub concept. Based on the findings of the review, we put forward a matrix of recommendations for cluster-level energy system simulations aiming to maximize the direct and indirect benefits of RES envelope solutions. By reviewing key factors and modelling approaches for characterizing RES-envelope-solutions-based urban energy systems at cluster level, this paper hopes to foster the transition towards more sustainable urban energy systems.